RENAISSANCE
'Introduction' About 1450, European scholars became more interested in studying the world around them. Their art became more true to life. They began to explore new lands. The new age in Europe was eventually called “the Renaissance.” Renaissance is a French word that means “rebirth.” Historians consider the Renaissance to be the beginning of modern history. The Renaissance began in northern Italy and then spread through Europe. Italian cities such as Naples, Genoa, and Venice became centers of trade between Europe and the Middle East. Arab scholars preserved the writings of the ancient Greeks in their libraries. When the Italian cities traded with the Arabs, ideas were exchanged along with goods. These ideas, preserved from the ancient past, served as the basis of the Renaissance. When the Byzantine empire fell to Muslim Turks in 1453, many Christian scholars left Greece for Italy. The Renaissance was much more than simply studying the work of ancient scholars. It influenced painting, sculpture, and architecture. Paintings became more realistic and focused less often on religious topics. Rich families became patrons and commissioned great art. Artists advanced the Renaissance style of showing nature and depicting the feelings of people. In Britain, there was a flowering in literature and drama that included the plays of William Shakespeare. 'Significant Figures' Elizabeth Carey (1585-1639 She is best known now for The Tragedy of Mariam, the Fair Queen of Jewry (1613), the first original play in English known to have been written by a woman. Desiderius Erasmus ( 1466-1536) ' (1466-1536) For a more thorough introduction, you can have alook at his page on the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, or you may want to read this PDF. Also, read this interesting and short article about Erasmus's views on Childhood. 'Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593) He was born in February 1564 in Canterbury, England. His works were vouched for by the court of Queen Elizabeth. Historical evidence suggets that during his educational absences, Marlowe was serving as a spy in the queen's service. He was imprisoned for a short time as an accomplice to murder in London and suring these six years he wrote Dr. Faustus. ''He died on May 30, 1593. 'Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592)' He was born on February 28, 1533, in Perigueux, France. The Montaigne name was noble, purchased by the author's grand-father and first used by the author. His focus was on writing, and despite his background in Latin, he wrote his major work Essays in his native French. He died on September 13, 1592. 'Sir Thomas More (1478-1535)' The records for his birth are not exact, but historians surmise he was born February 7, 1478, in London, England. During his mid-twenties he lived with monks and adopted their lifestyle. Like his friend erasmus, More combined his relugious and intellectual pursuits into one humanistic ideal that he purchased for the rest of his life.the ultimate expression of this ideal came with the publication of Utopia(1516). 'William Shakespeare (1564-1616)' He was born on April 23, 1564, in Stratford-upon-Avon, England. He wrote 154 sonnets and 37 highly successful dramatic plays, including ''Hamlet, Macbeth ''and ''Julius Caesar. _Rose Meschi_ Elizabeth Cary.jpg|Elizabeth carey Desiderius Erasmus.jpg|Desiderius Erasmus Marlowe.jpg|Christopher Marlowe shakespeare.jpg|William Shakespeare Sir Thomas More.jpg|Sir Thomas More Michel de montaigne.jpg|Michel de Montaigne 'Representative Works' The Prince It can be argued that no other work in the history of literature has inspired more long-term, wide-spread distaste than Niccolo Machiavelli's The Prince. ''it was published in 1532, five years after the aithor's death. Although Machiavelli intended the work to be a handbook for political leaders, most readers in the 16th C. were openly disgusted by the book's cold discussion and support of the unethical methods, such as murder, that successful leaders used to acquire and remain in power. At the time of its publication, the book was condemned as a manual for tyranny, and many critics since that time have had a similar response to the work. Only in 19th and 20th C. was ''The Prince translated and reevaluated in its historical context. Some critics have conjectured that Machiavelli was simply reporting on behaviors that he observed, while others believe that Machiavelli wrote the book as a satiric attack on tyranny. _Rose Meschi_ 'The praise of Folly' Erasmus displays cunning wit in his satire In Praise of Folly. Erasmus' characterization of Folly is cleverly constructed, and the irony in his essay is thick. Folly (the essay's central character) praises her endlessly, arguing that life would be dull and distasteful without her. Of earthly existence, Folly pompously states, "you'll find nothing frolic or fortunate that it owes not to me." Folly venerates her comrades, Self Love, Flattery, Oblivion, and Pleasure, whom she believes promote friendship and tolerance within society. Above all, Folly lauds self-deception and foolishness, finding Biblical support in favor of her beliefs. In conclusion, Folly speaks directly of Christianity, regarding its religious authority and practices. Erasmus adopts a pure Latin style commonly shared by many Renaissance humanist writers. In addition to its rhetorical brilliance, In Praise of Folly makes a fierce statement about 16th century Christian ideals. 'Don Quixote' Don Quixote certainly reveals much narrative power, considerable humor, a mastery of dialogue, and a forcible style. Don Quixote is the most influential work of literature from the Spanish Golden Age in the Spanish literary canon. As a founding work of modern Western literature, it regularly appears high on lists of the greatest works of fiction ever published. The novel's structure is in episodic form. It is written in the picaresco style of the late sixteenth century. The full title is indicative of the tale's object, as ingenioso (Spanish) means "to be quick with inventiveness".20 Although the novel is farcical on the surface, the second half is more serious and philosophical about the theme of deception. Quixote has served as an important thematic source not only in literature but in much of art and music, inspiring works by Pablo Picasso and Richard Strauss. The contrasts between the tall, thin, fancy-struck, and idealistic Quixote and the fat, squat, world-weary Panza is a motif echoed ever since the book’s publication and Don Quixote's imaginings are the butt of outrageous and cruel practical jokes in the novel. Even faithful and simple Sancho is unintentionally forced to deceive him at certain points. The novel is considered a satire of orthodoxy, veracity, and even nationalism. In going beyond mere storytelling to exploring the individualism of his characters, Cervantes helped move beyond the narrow literary conventions of the chivalric romance literature that he spoofed, which consists of straightforward retelling of a series of acts that redound to the knightly virtues of the hero. http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/donquixote/summary.html ( Fatemeh Tabassi Mofrad ) ' ' 'Doctor Faustus' The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus, based on the German Faustbuch, was the first dramatized version of the Faust legend of a scholar's dealing with the devil. While versions of "The Marlowe deviates significantly by having his hero unable to "burn his books" or repent to a merciful God in order to have his contract annulled at the end of the play. http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/doctorfaustus/summary.html ( fatemeh Tabassi Mofrad ) this is an online reading center where you can find the book and read it! 'Utopia' Sir Thomas More wrote Utopia in 1516. The work was written in Latin and it was published in Louvain (present-day Belgium). Utopia is a work of satire, indirectly criticizing Europe's political corruption and religious hypocrisy. More was a Catholic Humanist. Alongside his close friend, the philosopher and writer Erasmus More saw Humanism as a way to combine faith and reason. In depicting Utopia, More steps outside the bounds of orthodox Catholicism, but Mores’ ultimate goal is to indicate areas of improvement for Christian society. Is an ideal state possible? Utopia means "no place" but sounds like "good place”. As a satirist, More continues the tradition of Ancient Roman writers like Juvenal and Horace. As a philosopher brave enough to tackle the idea of the "ideal state," More leans away from Aristotle and towards Plato, author of The Republic. Sustaining the arguments of The Republic, Utopia fashions a society whose rulers are scholars (not unlike Plato's philosopher-king). Though Aristotle was opposed to the idea of common property and the abolition of private property, Aristotle's ideas of aesthetics, justice and harmony are present in the Utopian's philosophy. 'Fatemeh Tabassi Mofrad: Sir Thomas More - Utopia ' More travels to Antwerp as an ambassador for England and King Henry VIII. While not engaged in his official duties, More spends time conversing about intellectual matters with his friend, Peter Giles. One day, More sees Giles speaking to a bearded man whom More assumes to be a ship's captain. Giles soon introduces More to this new man, Raphael Hythloday, who turns out to be a philosopher and world traveler. The three men retire to Giles's house for supper and conversation, and Hythloday begins to speak about his travels. Hythloday has been on many voyages with the noted explorer Amerigo Vespucci, traveling to the New World, south of the Equator, through Asia, and eventually landing on the island of Utopia. He describes the societies through which he travels with such insight that Giles and More become convinced that Hythloday would make a terrific counselor to a king. Hythloday refuses even to consider such a notion. A disagreement follows, in which the three discuss Hythloday's reasons for his position. To make his point, Hythloday describes a dinner he once shared in England with Cardinal Morton and a number of others. During this dinner, Hythloday proposed alternatives to the many evil civil practices of England, such as the policy of capital punishment for the crime of theft. His proposals meet with derision, until they are given legitimate thought by the Cardinal, at which point they meet with great general approval. Hythloday uses this story to show how pointless it is to counsel a king when the king can always expect his other counselors to agree with his own beliefs or policies. Hythloday then goes on to make his point through a number of other examples, finally noting that no matter how good a proposed policy is, it will always look insane to a person used to a different way of seeing the world. Hythloday points out that the policies of the Utopians are clearly superior to those of Europeans, yet adds that Europeans would see as ludicrous the all-important Utopian policy of common property. More and Giles do disagree with the notion that common property is superior to private property, and the three agree that Hythloday should describe the Utopian society in more detail. First, however, they break for lunch. Back from lunch, Hythloday describes the geography and history of Utopia. He explains how the founder of Utopia, General Utopus, conquered the isthmus on which Utopia now stands and through a great public works effort cut away the land to make an island. Next, Hythloday moves to a discussion of Utopian society, portraying a nation based on rational thought, with communal property, great productivity, no rapacious love of gold, no real class distinctions, no poverty, little crime or immoral behavior, religious tolerance, and little inclination to war. It is a society that Hythloday believes is superior to any in Europe. Hythloday finishes his description and More explains that after so much talking, Giles, Hythloday, and he were too tired to discuss the particular points of Utopian society. More concludes that many of the Utopian customs described by Hythloday, such as their methods of making war and their belief in communal property, seem absurd. He does admit, however, that he would like to see some aspects of Utopian society put into practice in England, though he does not believe any such thing will happen. Religion A number of religions exist in Utopia. They all are similar in that they believe in a single god, but the nature of that god is very different, ranging from a sort of animism, to worship of an ancient hero, to worship of the sun or moon, to belief in a single omnipotent, ineffable god. This last religion, according to Hythloday, is in the process of becoming dominant, though all the religions practice complete tolerance of all the other religions. After Hythloday and his fellows spoke to the Utopians about Christ, a good number converted and began to learn as much as they could. These converts also were treated with the utmost respect by the faithful of other Utopian religions. In fact, the only belief that is not tolerated is atheism, as it is seen as immoral. If someone believes there is no afterlife, according to the Utopians, then that person will act selfishly in search of immediate physical and mental pleasure and not act virtuously in hope of future reward. The different religions meet in the same churches run by the same priests, and services emphasize the similarities between the religions. If some religion demands a rite or prayer that might be offensive to another, then that rite must be performed in a home in private, not in the church. Utopian priests are men of the highest moral and religious caliber, and, accordingly, there are very few of them. Almost no women are priests, but it is allowed that a woman could become a priest. Priests maintain the religious centers, educate the children, and praise good behavior while criticizing bad. The priests hold the highest power in the land; even the chief executive must listen to them. Before major religious holidays, women prostrate themselves before there husbands, and children before their parents, and all admit their wrongdoings. It is only with a clear conscience that people may attend services. At services all are attentive and incredibly respectful of the priests, and all acknowledge God to be their maker and ruler. 'Othello' It is believed that Othello was first performed between 1604 and 1605. In the Elizabethan era there was a huge demand for new entertainment and Othello would have been produced immediately following the completion of the play. It is believed that the script was first printed in 1622 in a quarto edition. As William Shakespeare clearly did not want his work published details of the play would have therefore been noted, and often pirated without his consent, following a performance. It was then printed in 1623 as part of the First Folio. The settings for Othello are Venice and Cyprus. The play is categorized as a Tragedy. The number of spoken words in Othello, according to the Complete Public Domain Text is 27,953. http://www.sparknotes.com/shakespeare/othello/summary.html ( Fatemeh Tabassi Mofrad ) 'Characteristics' ' ' Antiquity "Renaissance" literally means "rebirth." It refers especially to the rebirth of learning that began in Italy in the fourteenth century, spread to the north, including England, by the sixteenth century, and ended in the north in the mid-seventeenth century (earlier in Italy). During this period, there was an enormous renewal of interest in and study of classical antiquity. Renaissance thinkers strongly associated themselves with the values of classical antiquity, particularly as expressed in the newly rediscovered classics of literature, history, and moral philosophy. Conversely, they tended to dissociate themselves from works written in the Middle Ages, a historical period they looked upon rather negatively. According to them, the Middle Ages were set in the "middle" of two much more valuable historical periods, antiquity and their own. Nevertheless, as modern scholars have noted, extremely important continuities with the previous age still existed. #Individualism In the Renaissance, an ideal man was adept in many educational facilities. Art in the Renaissance brought out the individual. In contrast to the middle Ages, uniqueness was encouraged, and many artists were thought to have been "genius". Raphael, while creating the School of Athens, depicted himself in the painting. This was common way Renaissance artists used "self-glorification" to show their own importance. Michelangelo's David also depicts individualism. His confident pose, in contrast to the Middle Ages' Christian humility, is used to symbolize that man accomplish anything. Man in the Renaissance was considered "exceptional" because he was depicted in the image of God, and stated in Pico della Mirandola's On the Dignity of Man. Faith in reason From such a view, it was felt that ration and trained thought as perpetrated by Platonic ideals were the highest goal to which man could aspire. For rational thought and virtuous behavior would lead to the highest development of the soul, not pious preaching or devout worship of idols. We see this in the writings of Pietro Pomponazzi when he discusses the kind of men that have become most godlike on earth: "Hence there are three kinds of men to be found. Some are numbered with the gods, although such are but few. And these are the men who, having subjugated the vegetative and sensitive, have become almost completely rational. Some from total neglect of the intellect and from occupying themselves with the vegetative and sensitive alone, have become almost completely rational" (393). ' ' Education One consequence of the development of humanist philosophy during the Renaissance was the increased emphasis on the importance of education. People needed to learn ancient Greek and Latin in order to even begin to understand the ancient manuscripts. This, in turn, led to further education in the arts and philosophies which went along with those manuscripts — and finally the ancient sciences which had for so long been neglected by Christian scholars. As a result, there was a burst of scientific and technological development during the Renaissance unlike anything seen in Europe for centuries. Early on this education was limited primarily to aristocrats and men of financial means. Indeed, much of the early humanist movement had a rather elitist air about it. Over time, however, the courses of study were adapted for a wider audience — a process which was greatly hastened by the development of the printing press. With this, many entrepreneurs began printing editions of ancient philosophy and literature in Greek, Latin, and Italian for a mass audience, leading to a dissemination of information and ideas much wider than previously thought possible. Humanism Many Renaissance scholars looked to the past for inspiration. They studied the classics – the works of the ancient Greeks and Romans. In the works of the classics they found a spirit similar to theirs that valued innovation in this world rather than looking forward to the next world after death. A person who studied the classics was called a humanist. Humanists recreated classical styles in art, literature, and architecture. Humanists believed that by studying the classics, they could understand people and the world better. One humanist wrote, “To each species of creature has been allotted a peculiar and instinctive gift. To horses galloping, to birds flying, comes naturally. To man only is given the desire to learn.” The humanists emphasized the importance of human values instead of religious beliefs. Renaissance humanists were often devout Christians, but their promotion of secular, or non-religious, values often put them at odds with the church. Today we refer to the study of literature, philosophy and art as the humanities. The civilizations of Greece and Rome ended long ago, but they continue to influence us today. source: http://www.mrdowling.com/704-humanism.html informative pages on humanism: [humanism] _Rose Meschi_ 'Interesting Webpages on Renaissance' 1. http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/cs6/ren.html 2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_literature 3. http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/rfletcher/bl-rfletcher-history-5-renaissance.htm _Rose Meschi_